Most of what we believe about Vikings is wrong

For one thing, they didn't eat Spam

Cluster of Excellence

Ideas about Vikings and Norse mythology come mostly from much later medieval sources, leaving plenty of room for reinterpretation. Over centuries, writers, politicians, and artists reshaped these stories to reflect their own worldviews, from romantic heroism to dangerous nationalist myths. 

Pop culture and neo-paganism continue to amplify selective versions of this past. Scholars today are unraveling how these shifting visions emerged and how they influence identity and culture.

According to scholars of Scandinavian studies, many widely held beliefs about Vikings and Old Norse paganism cannot be confirmed through modern scientific methods. "They are based essentially on reports written by Christian scholars in the High Middle Ages well over a century later, since, besides brief runic inscriptions, no written texts from the original period have been preserved," explains Scandinavian scholar Roland Scheel from the Cluster of Excellence "Religion and Politics" at the University of Münster.

Scheel notes that people today often picture the Viking Age, which is generally defined as spanning the 8th to the 11th century, in very specific ways shaped by films, series, video games and museum presentations. Popular images, such as the fearless adventurer, powerful fighter and skilled seafarer, have become familiar. Yet Scheel stresses that the historical record is far less straightforward. He adds that important narratives used to explain paganism, including in museums and the media, frequently overlook that the surviving texts represent "memorialized history" only.

How Vikings Became Symbols of a Positive Past

Scheel points out that the term "Viking" now carries mostly positive associations. "Pre-Christian Scandinavian society is credited, for example, with a special warrior culture, an exceptionally good position for women compared to the Middle Ages, and freedom from religious constraints." This favorable view of Scandinavian paganism continues to influence identity formation today. "One example are neo-pagan groups, a religious and cultural current based on pre-Christian paganism whose followers see themselves as living Scandinavian paganism -- often in contrast to monotheistic religions such as Christianity."

Scheel notes that this modern interpretation rarely acknowledges aspects such as the violence of Viking raids. This idealized view is also far more sympathetic than modern perceptions of other medieval events, including the Crusades, which are now linked with coercion and brutality. "Ideas about the Vikings can be seen in pop culture, advertising and even politically motivated projects. One example is the Council of Europe's Viking Cultural Route, which includes numerous historical sites and presents the 'Viking heritage' as a unifying element of European identity."

"Richard Wagner's Character Valkyrie Is Also a Stereotype"

Scandinavian studies scholars Roland Scheel and Simon Hauke are examining at the Cluster of Excellence how the medieval roots of the 'pagan North' shaped later interpretations and how these ideas have evolved over time. They emphasize that concepts of Scandinavian paganism have been handed down for centuries and repeatedly reshaped by different authors and cultural movements.

Their examples span prominent works such as the 13th-century "Edda" by Icelandic scholar Snorri Sturluson, which recounts stories of gods and heroes, to Jacob Grimm, who relied heavily on medieval Scandinavian texts, and to Reich Chancellor Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898), who referenced the "Edda" in his speeches to the Reichstag. 

"What is true for all periods is that studying how people imagined Scandinavian paganism in their particular time and how they sought to convey this image to others -- this speaks volumes about their goals and mindsets. Our research allows us to peek behind the scenes of our own knowledge -- or of what we think we know."

Political Uses of Norse Mythology

Scheel adds that the image of the 'pagan North' has been used for political purposes at several points in history. "The clearest negative example is how the Volk movement and the National Socialists exploited Norse mythology, misusing medieval written sources to underpin their racial ideology." Although some connections to right-wing extremism persist, Scheel notes that today the reception of Norse mythology is far more varied and reflects a broad spectrum of interests. The same is true for neo-pagan groups, which represent a diverse field.

Valkyries in Opera, Pop Culture and Original Sources

Ideas from Norse mythology have also inspired major works of art and literature. "One further example is Richard Wagner's opera 'The Ring of the Nibelung'," explains Simon Hauke. "Many of the ideas we have today about Norse mythology come from this opera's premiere, including the figure of the Valkyrie, whom Wagner clothed as a decidedly feminine warrior. Wagner's image of the Valkyrie is often adopted today, for example on album covers of metal bands and Yu-Gi-Oh! Cards." Hauke notes that this portrayal departs significantly from the diversity of roles described in Old Norse sources.

"Valkyries assume very different roles in Old Norse sources. Besides selecting the fallen in battle and transporting them to Valhalla, and playing the role of lover to a human hero, they also serve as barmaids in the afterlife. In the textual sources, Valkyries often intervene in human battles, but it is unclear what exactly their role was in the original mythology and whether they were seen as warriors -- the only thing that is certain today is that this was just one of many facets of a character whom later interpretations reduced to her femininity and warriorhood."

Exploring Paganism’s Role in European Identity

Roland Scheel and Simon Hauke's research project is entitled "Paganisations: Memorialised paganism as an element of Scandinavian and European identities." The conference "Imagining Nordic Paganism: Cultural Memories and Scholarly Thought Since the Middle Ages" focuses on the long history of how Scandinavian paganism has been interpreted. "We cover a broad range of topics, such as the relationship between gender and paganism, the spatial dimension of its reception, and not least the identity-giving recourse to paganism in historiography and the history of Scandinavian studies. This reveals the great temporal depth of the reception of Scandinavian paganism from the first sources in the Middle Ages to research and literature today," says Scheel. The conference will feature talks by international experts from Scandinavian studies and related fields, including scholar of Scandinavian studies Jóhanna Katrín Friðriksdóttir (Oslo), runologist Alessia Bauer (Paris), scholar of Scandinavian studies Jonas Wellendorf (Berkeley), and scholar of Islamic studies Philip Bockholt from the Cluster of Excellence.